The Sogdian Diaspora and the Informal Architecture of Trans-Eurasian Credit

粟特人离散群体与跨欧亚信用的非正式架构

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Operating without state charters or centralized banks, Sogdian merchants built a pan-Eurasian credit network spanning Samarkand to Chang’an between the fourth and eighth centuries.
Their letters, preserved in Turfan and Dunhuang, reveal standardized promissory formulas, multi-tiered guarantor hierarchies, and interest-rate conventions calibrated to caravan risk profiles.

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