The Industrial Revolution and the Invention of ‘Productivity’
工业革命与‘生产力’概念的发明
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Before 1780, ‘productivity’ had no economic definition; factory owners measured success by output volume, not input efficiency—until steam-powered looms forced precise coal-and-labor accounting.
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Boulton & Watt installed rotary engines with flywheel governors not just for power, but to generate measurable, comparable work units across Manchester mills.
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