Universal Basic Services: A Complement to Income Transfers in Modern Welfare Design

全民基础服务：现代福利体系中对收入转移的必要补充

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Universal basic services (UBS) guarantee access—not cash—to essential goods like transport, broadband, childcare, and lifelong learning regardless of income level.
Unlike means-tested benefits, UBS reduces stigma, administrative overhead, and behavioral disincentives associated with conditional welfare programs.

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